Industrial and Organizational Psychology and Training Employees
What is Industrial and Organisational (I/O) Psychology?
The “science of people at work”
Industrial and Organisational Psychology is a specialist area that applies psychological knowledge and skills to the workplace, with the aim of improving organisational effectiveness and the quality of work life.
I/O Psychologists have knowledge and skills in areas such as:
Selection and assessment
Job analysis
Training and development
Career development and coaching
Organisational development and change management
Attitude surveys and research on workplace issues
Performance development and review
Wellbeing, conflict, stress and work adjustment
Occupational health and safety
Program evaluation
Consumer behaviour and marketing
Advisory and advocacy regarding workplace issues
I/O Psychology Career Destinations
Human Resources/Organisational Development
E.g. Department of Treasury and Finance, RAC, WA Police Service, BHPBilliton, Rio Tinto, Coca-Cola
General Management
E.g. Department of Health, Wesfarmers
Consulting
E.g. Chandler & MacLeod, Deloitte, PriceWaterhouseCoopers, SHL
Academia
Salary expectations
Depends very much on which area you enter
In a recent Australian survey (n=231)
Median 2006 salary for current full time employees was $88,465 (range $22,000 - $400,000, mean=$106,530)
Median 2006 graduate salary for those starting work in the last 2 years was $51,000 (range $10,000-$122,000)
Degree Offerings in I/O Psychology at UWA
Master of Science (Industrial and Organisational Psychology)
Master of Psychology (Industrial and Organisational Psychology)
Combined MPsych/PhD (Industrial and Organisational Psychology)
PhD
Master of Psychology (Industrial and Organisational Psychology)
Intake of around 15 a year
Acceptance rate varies
Generally 10%-30% acceptance depending on the quality of applications
Coursework
Placements in Industry
Thesis
Coursework units
Selection and Assessment
Psychology of Training
Organisational Development & Work Design
Occupational Health, Safety and Well-being
Professional Issues in I/O Psychology
Statistics for Field Research
Research Methods in Applied Settings
2 Elective units (UWA Business School) e.g. Organisational Behaviour, Accounting, Advanced Human Resource Management, Marketing Principles
Placements
125 days (1000 hours) in total divided into 3 separate placements of 42 days each
Individualised placements depending on career stage and interests
Individual and group meetings within a peer coaching framework
Example Placement Projects
Development of internal communication strategy for a government agency
Analysis of training needs and development of training options for a diversified corporate
Selection and assessment for mining staff
Organisational culture survey development, administration, analysis and report for various organisations
Development of induction process for lateral hires for a top 4 accounting firm
Development and evaluation of induction program for overseas recruits in a state utility and for mining clients
Analysis of exit interview data for a large retail client
Example Placement Organisations
BHPBilliton
Chandler & MacLeod
ChevronTexaco
Coles
Department of Consumer & Employment Protection
Department of Environment and Conservation
Department of Racing, Gaming and Liquor
Department of Treasury and Finance
IKEA
People Solutions
Perth Transit Authority
PriceWaterhouse Coopers
Prime Psychology
RAC
Talent2
Woolworths
Wesfarmers Energy
Western Power
Research Thesis
Example topics
Employee burnout
Flexible work arrangements
Ethical codes
Work stress
Coaching
Turnover intention
Personality and intelligence
Employee engagement
Example participant organisations include
ChevronTexaco
Department of Environment and Conservation
Main Roads WA
Office of Public Sector Standards
OSA Group
Wesfarmers
Western Australian Institute of Sport
Woolworths
What are the main themes and focus areas of industrial and Organisational Psychology (I–O) and why are they important?
Describe the nature and identity of I-O psychology
Name and discuss various subfields of I-O psychology
Describe application fields in I-O psychology
Discuss the history of I-O psychology
Discuss professional training and practice in I-O psychology
Discuss future challenges in I-O psychology.
Sub-fields in psychology
Clinical psychology – aims to alleviate emotional distress caused by psychological disorders and problems of life
Counselling psychology – management of pain caused by life, facilitating improved understanding of issues, fostering use of effective coping skills
Career psychology – involves studying and facilitating occupational development across the life-span
Educational and school psychology – focuses on studying factors, behaviour, processes & problems of learning
Developmental psychology – focuses on age related changes across a person’s life span
Social psychology – studying human social interaction by understanding the influence of behaviour, beliefs and feelings amongst people.
Cognitive psychology – revolves around the theory and research regarding higher mental processes
Personality psychology – the study of the more or less consistent patterns of behaviour in people across time and situations
Physiological/Neurological psychology – Study of relationship between human behaviour and neurological and physiological systems
Psychometrics – entails the development of psychological measuring instruments
Experimental psychology – used in many psychological disciplines to establish patterns of human behaviour in controlled situations
Health psychology – utilises psychological knowledge to identify causes and symptoms of physical health and illness and related dysfunctions.
Positive psychology – emphasis on enhancement of optimum human functioning
Forensic psychology – studying context of criminal behaviour (e.g. causes) and obtaining and giving evidence in legal procedures
Community psychology – using, developing and adapting psychological knowledge and practices to improve quality of life in human communities
Cross-cultural psychology – focuses on diversity management or the consideration of differences in and between groups of people
Consulting psychology – professional involvement of psychologists with individuals, groups & organisations
Industrial and Organisational (I-O) psychology – utilises principles and assumptions of psychology to study and influence human behaviour at work.
Nature and identity of I-O psychology: I–O Psychology: A scientific discipline?
I-O Psychology is branch of psychology
Utilises psychological knowledge and in the work context to assess, utilise, develop and influence individual employees
While inextricably linked to psychology, I-O psychology has adapted and developed it own identity
It utilises, develops and teaches foundational knowledge, e.g. psychological theory/research on human behaviour in work context
Foundational knowledge is supported through work-related research to further its knowledge base
Is an applied science utilising many types of practical applications and methods to achieve best fit between employee and workplace.
Sub-fields and practice areas in I-O psychology
Organisational psychology
Concerned with work organisations as systems involving individual employees and work groups, as well as structure and dynamics of organisations
Personnel psychology
Focus on utilising individual differences in and between employees and predicting the optimal employee-organisation fit
Research methodology
Entails psychological methods of inquiry to solve research problems
Occupational psychological assessment
Entails the development and utilisation of assessment instruments to obtain measures of attributes and behaviour of employees.
Career or vocational psychology/counselling
Studies career development issues with regard to individuals, employment, unemployment, career-related issues in organisations and also non-work influencing factors
Employment relations
Deals with behavioural dynamics, communication and conflict management between individuals and groups of employees, employers and other parties
Employee and organisational well-being
Aims to facilitate positive psychological capital or resources in organisations and employees
Ergonomics
Concerned with understanding of human interaction between employees and their technical environment.
Consumer psychology
Also referred to as Economic and Market Psychology concerned with studying psychological aspects of consumer behaviour
Other applied fields
Cross-cultural Industrial Psychology
Management and leadership
Entrepreneurship and diversity management.
History of I-O psychology
Taylorism
Man is a rational-economic being
Humans are inherently
Lazy, inefficient and unreliable
Only motivated by financial incentives
Criticism of taylorism
Heavily criticised as a result of findings in Hawthorne experiments
Perceived as an exploitation of workers
Neglect of individual differences
Hawthorne experiments
Employee work performance may vary if employees follow specific procedures and standards under strict supervision.
Hawthorne experiments
What physical factors (e.g. lighting) govern worker productivity?
1924 study conducted at the Hawthorne factory of Western Electric failed to find that physical environment factors controlled productivity
Rather, any changes made increased productivity
Conclusion: Mere observation of a worker is sufficient to change their behavior (termed the Hawthorne effect)
I/O can be traced back to the work of W.D. Scott who in 1901 argued that psychological principles could be applied to advertising
F.W Taylor proposed basic principles of scientific management (1911)
H. Munsterberg created a laboratory to study personnel selection and training (1913)
Early I/O psychologists studied worker productivity in the factory
Professional training and practice issues
Contributing institutions
HPCSA
Professional Board for Psychology, etc.
Contributing peoples, associations and events
Professional training and practice
Governing bodies
Qualifications
Practice
Universities and other training institutions
Proximity with human resources management.
Future challenges in I-O psychology
How to use existing knowledge and practice
How to develop and adapt this knowledge and practice
I-O psychologist must be able to speak the language of business
Future psychologists successes in making employees and organisation more adaptive to change
The management of the increase in work stress
Creating meaningful employment amidst growing sophisticated technology, business mergers and downsizing, decreasing job opportunities
Changing nature of work requires ongoing revision of validity theory in the assessment of employees
More incorporation of technology driven interventions in organisations
I/O Psychologists have knowledge and skills in areas such as:
Selection and assessment
Job analysis
Training and development
Career development and coaching
Organisational development and change management
Attitude surveys and research on workplace issues
Performance development and review
Wellbeing, conflict, stress and work adjustment
Occupational health and safety
Program evaluation
Consumer behaviour and marketing
Advisory and advocacy regarding workplace issues
Chapter:3=Human Factors Psychology
The focus of human factors psychology is to improve the design and function of machines and the work environment
Humans and machines form an interdependent system
Machine has displays and controls (displays allow for human perception, controls allow the human to control the machine)
Displays and controls can be fine-tuned to prevent accidents and improve performance
Personnel Psychology
Finding the right person for the job:
Job analysis: What knowledge, skills, and abilities are required to do the job?
Candidate selection: Who best matches the job analysis?
Interview process
Job training: How is the person trained after hiring?
Orientation is designed to clue new hires into the new organization culture
Worker Evaluation
Performance evaluation is the formal procedure used to asses the multidimensional job performance of employees
Provides feedback on job performance
Can be used to identify training and development needs
Used to make decisions on promotions, transfers, and termination
Issues in Evaluation
Evaluations can be objective (units sold) or subjective
Often cannot identify objective criteria
Subjective evaluations suffer from rater bias
Halo effect is the tendency to rate a person as too high or too low based on one outstanding trait
Halo effect can be countered by having multiple persons contribute to the evaluation
The evaluation can be focused on rating behaviors rather than traits
Training In Organizations
Organizations spend $billions on training their employees
Training can be very valuable by
Increasing employee competence and performance
Increasing employee motivation
Increasing employee adjustment and well-being
Not always effective because training
is for the wrong thing
given to the wrong people
uses the wrong methods
Characteristics of organizational training
1. Field dominated by nonpsychologists practitioners.
2. Much training crisis motivated.
3. Much training frivolous--no particular goal.
4. Many fads & fashions.
5. Nontheoretical. Few principles are applied.
Main I/O Training Activities
Need assessment
Design
Evaluation
Delivery of training usually (but not always) done by non-psychologist trainers
Determining what training should be done
Major methods
Job analysis: KSAO's necessary for the job
Critical incidents: E.g., hospital incident reports
Performance appraisal: Can be part of a performance management system (see chapter 4)
Employee surveys
Training Program Design Principles
Goal: Transfer of training to job
Principles
Feedback necessary for learning
General principles: Cover the basic principles involved in the training.
Identical elements: Between training and job situation
Over learning--practice
Whole vs. part (depends on complexity)
Distributed or spaced vs. massed (distributed better)
Ability
Motivation
Supportive environment increases motivation
Anxiety
Use of the Types of Training
Evaluation: Did the Training Work
Criteria: Ultimate vs. actual
Training criteria
Reactions
Learning
Performance criteria
Behavior
Results
Design of evaluation studies
Posttest only
Pretest posttest
Control group
training utility
Is training worth the money?
Study of training
18 training programs, single organization
16 showed positive training effects
13 had utility, although some were marginal
(Morrow et al. 1997)
Training Dollars Spent On…
Objectives
Discuss the systems approach to training and development.
Describe the components of training-needs assessment.
Identify the principles of learning and describe how they facilitate training.
Identify the types of training methods used for managers and nonmanagers.
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of various evaluation criteria.
Describe the special training programs that are currently popular.
Training and Development and Other HRM Functions
Availability of training can aid in recruitment
Recruitment
Provide an additional source of trainees
Training may permit hiring less-qualified applicants
Selection
Effective selection may reduce training needs
Training aids in the achievement of performance
Performance Appraisal
A basis for assessing training needs and results
Training and development may lead to higher pay
Compensation Management
A basis for determining employee’s rate of pay
Training may include a role for the union
Labor Relations
Union cooperation can facilitate training efforts
Training and Development
Training
Effort initiated by an organization to foster learning among its members.
Tends to be narrowly focused and oriented toward short-term performance concerns.
Development
Effort that is oriented more toward broadening an individual’s skills for the future responsibilities.
The Systems Approach to Training and Development
Four Phases
Needs assessment
Program design
Implementation
Evaluation
Systems Model of Training
Phase 1:
Needs Assessment
Organization analysis
Task analysis
Person analysis
Phase 2:
Design
Instructional objectives
Trainee readiness
Learning principles
Phase 3:
Implementation
On-the-job methods
Off-the-job methods
Management development
Phase 4:
Evaluation
Reactions
Learning
Behavior transfer
Results
Needs Assessment for Training
Competency
assessment
Analysis ofthe sets of skills and knowledge needed for decision-oriented and knowledge-intensive jobs.
ORGANIZATIONAL ANALYSIS of environment, strategies, and resources to determine where to emphasize training
TASK ANALYSIS of the activities to be performed in order to determine the KSAs needed.
PERSON ANALYSIS of performance, knowledge, and skills in order to determine who needs training.
Phase 1: Conducting the Needs Assessment
Organization Analysis
An examination of the environment, strategies, and resources of the organization to determine where training emphasis should be placed.
Task Analysis
The process of determining what the content of a training program should be on the basis of a study of the tasks and duties involved in the job.
Person Analysis
A determination of the specific individuals who need training.
Phase 2: Designing Training Programs
Issues in training design
Instructional objectives
Trainee readiness and motivation
Principles of learning
Characteristics of successful trainersz
Instructional Objectives
Represent the desired outcomes of a training program
Performance-centered objectives
Provide a basis for choosing methods and materials and for selecting the means for assessing whether the instruction will be successful.
Trainee Readiness and Motivation
Strategies for Creating a Motivated Training Environment:
Use positive reinforcement.
Eliminate threats and punishment.
Be flexible.
Have participants set personal goals.
Design interesting instruction.
Break down physical and psychological obstacles to learning.
Feedback and Reinforcement
Behavior Modification
The technique based on the principle that behavior that is rewarded, or positively reinforced, is repeated more frequently, whereas behavior that is penalized or unrewarded will decrease in frequency.
Characteristics of Successful Instructors
Knowledge of the subject
Adaptability
Sincerity
Sense of humor
Interest
Clear instructions
Individual assistance
Enthusiasm
Training Methods for Nonmanagerial Employees
On-the-Job Training (OJT)
Apprenticeship Training
Cooperative Training, Internships, and Governmental Training
Classroom Instruction
Programmed Instruction
Audiovisual Methods
Computer-based Training and E-Learning
Simulation
On-the-job training (OJT)
Method by which employees are given hands-on experience with instructions from their supervisor or other trainer.
Apprenticeship training
System of training in which a worker entering the skilled trades is given thorough instruction and experience, both on and off the job, in the practical and theoretical aspects of the work.
Cooperative Training
Training program that combines practical on-the-job experience with formal educational classes.
Internship Programs
Programs jointly sponsored by colleges, universities, and other organizations that offer students the opportunity to gain real-life experience while allowing them to find out how they will perform in work organizations.
Vestibule Training
A special type of classroom facility is used to give instruction in the operation of equipment like that found in operating departments
The emphasis is on instruction rather than production.
Computer-assisted Instruction (CAI)
A system that delivers instructional materials directly through a computer terminal in an interactive format.
Computer-managed Instruction (CMI)
A system normally employed in conjunction with CAI that uses a computer to generate and score tests and to determine the level of training proficiency.
Advantages of Web-based Training
Learning is self-paced.
Training comes to the employee.
Training is interactive.
New employees do not have to wait for a scheduled training session.
Training can focus on specific needs as revealed by built-in tests.
Trainees can be referred to online help or written material.
It is easier to revise a computer program than to change classroom-training materials.
Record keeping is facilitated.
The computer program can be linked to video presentations.
The training can be cost-effective if used for a large number of employees.
Training Methods for Management Development
On-the-Job Experiences
Seminars and Conferences
Case Studies
Management Games
Role Playing
Behavior Modeling
On-the-Job Experiences
Coaching
Understudy Assignment
Job Rotation
Lateral Transfer
Special Projects
Action Learning
Staff Meetings
Planned Career Progressions
Case Studies
The use of case studies is most appropriate when:
Analytic, problem-solving, and critical thinking skills are most important.
The KSAs are complex and participants need time to master them.
Active participation is desired.
The process of learning (questioning, interpreting, and so on) is as important as the content.
Team problem solving and interaction are possible.
When Using Case Studies…
Be clear about learning objectives, and list possible ways to achieve the objectives.
Decide which objectives would be best served by the case method.
Identify available cases that might work, or consider writing your own.
Set up the activity—including the case material, the room, and the schedule.
Follow the principles of effective group dynamics.
When Using Case Studies…
Provide a chance for all learners to take part and try to keep the groups small.
Stop for process checks and be ready to intervene if group dynamics get out of hand.
Allow for different learning styles.
Clarify the trainer’s role.
Bridge the gap between theory and practice.
Role Playing
Successful role play requires that instructors:
Ensure that group members are comfortable with each other.
Select and prepare the role players by introducing a specific situation.
To help participants prepare, ask them to describe potential characters.
Realize that volunteers make better role players.
Successful role play requires that instructors:
Prepare the observers by giving them specific tasks (such as evaluation or feedback).
Guide the role-play enactment through its bumps (since it is not scripted).
Keep it short.
Discuss the enactment and prepare bulleted points of what was learned.
Behavior Modeling
Behavior Modeling
An approach that demonstrates desired behavior and gives trainees the chance to practice and role-play those behaviors and receive feedback.
Involves four basic components:
Learning points
Model
Practice and role play
Feedback and reinforcement
Criterion 1: Reactions
Participant Reactions.
The simplest and most common approach to training evaluation is assessing trainees.
Potential questions might include the following:
What were your learning goals for this program? Did you achieve them?
Did you like this program?
Would you recommend it to others who have similar learning goals? What suggestions do you have for improving the program?
Should the organization continue to offer it?
Criterion 2: Learning
Checking to see whether they actually learned anything.
Testing knowledge and skills before beginning a training program gives a baseline standard on trainees that can be measured again after training to determine improvement.
However, in addition to testing trainees, test employees who did not attend the training to estimate the differential effect of the training.
Criterion 3: Behavior
Transfer of Training
Effective application of principles learned to what is required on the job.
Maximizing the Transfer of Training
Feature identical elements
Focus on general principles
Establish a climate for transfer.
Give employees transfer strategies
Criterion 4: Results
Utility of Training Programs.
The benefits derived from training.
Return on Investment
Viewing training in terms of the extent to which it provides knowledge and skills that create a competitive advantage and a culture that is ready for continuous change.
Benchmarking
The process of measuring one’s own services and practices against the recognized leaders in order to identify areas for improvement.
Plan: conduct a self-audit to identify areas for benchmarking.
Do: collect data about activities.
Check: Analyze data.
Act: Establish goals, implement changes, monitor progress, and redefine benchmarks.
Special Topics in Training and Development
Orientation
A formal process of familiarizing new employees with the organization, their jobs, and their work units.
Basic Skills Training
Typical basic skills: Reading, writing, computing, speaking, listening, problem solving, managing oneself, knowing how to learn, working as part of a team, leading others.
Items for an Orientation Packet
Company history
Copy of specific job goals and descriptions
List of unique terms in the industry, company, and job
Organizational publications
Telephone numbers and locations of key personnel
Performance appraisal forms and procedures
List of on-the-job training opportunities
Safety and emergency procedures
Policy handbook
Current organization chart
Map of facility
Union contract
List of holidays
List of employee benefits
Sources of information
Insurance plans
Feelings About Work
Job satisfaction: Attitude about the job reflecting like/dislike for it and various facets.
Organizational commitment: Attachment to the job.
Emotion: Reaction to a situation that includes both physiological arousal and cognitive appraisal, e.g., anger or anxiety.
Nature of Job Satisfaction
Global approach: Overall satisfaction with work
Facet approach: Satisfaction with aspects of the job
Pay
Promotion
Supervision
Nature of work
Most people like the job overall
Facet satisfactions vary
Highest: Nature of work
Lowest: Pay and Promotion opportunities
Assessment
Self-report survey
Easy to use
Can be anonymous
Person best judge of own feelings
Standard scales exist
Job Descriptive Index (JDI)
5 facets of job satisfaction
Job In General (JIG)
Global job satisfaction
Scales exist for commitment and emotion
Antecedents of Job Satisfaction: Environmental
Job characteristics
Hackman & Oldham
Characteristics ? Psychological States ? Job satisfaction
Strong research support linking perceptions of characteristics to job satisfaction
Weak research support linking objective characteristics to job satisfaction
Pay
Salary compared to people in same job more important than different jobs
Justice
Distributive and Procedural related to global and facet satisfaction
Antecedents of Job Satisfaction: Environmental
Personality
Negative affectivity (high NAs less satisfied)
Locus of control (externals less satisfied)
Gender
Few gender differences
Age
Curvilinear—satisfaction lowest age 26 to 31
Culture and Ethnicity
Few racial differences within the U.S.
Western countries score higher than Asians
Could be due to response styles rather than true feelings
Person-Job Fit
Match between individual and the job
People differ in reactions to same situation
Characteristics of the person is a moderator
Moderator: Variable that affects relationship between two other variables
Growth need strength (GNS)
People high on GNS are more satisfied with high scope jobs
People low on GNS are not more satisfied with high scope jobs
Effects of Job Satisfaction
Job Performance
Small correlation
More evidence that performance causes satisfaction than reverse
Turnover
Dissatisfied people more likely to quit
Moderated by labor market—people quit when they find another job
Absence
Very small correlation—other factors more important
Health and Well-Being
Job satisfaction relates to health variables such as anxiety and depression
Life Satisfaction
Job satisfaction important component of life satisfaction
Spillover
Organizational Commitment
One commitment, three components
Mowday, Steers, Porter
Acceptance of organization goals
Intention to stay on the job
Willingness to work hard
Three commitments
Meyer and Allen
Affective: Like the job
Continuance: Need the job
Normative: Feel obligated to stay on the job
Commitment and Other Variables
Similar correlations as job satisfaction
High commitment associated with
High job scope
High job satisfaction
Low job stressors
Job Scope
Emotions and Work
Emotion state: How you feel now
Emotion mood: How you have been feeling lately
Positive emotions: Feeling good
Greater creativity
Higher job satisfaction
More contextual performance
Negative emotions: Feeling bad
Lower job satisfaction
Higher absence
More turnover
Emotional Labor
Requirement at work to express or inhibit emotional display
Smiling at customers
Not showing anger toward clients
Some studies showed that acting happy can lead to job satisfaction
Emotional dissonance: Expressing emotion you don’t feel
Leads to dissatisfaction and stress
What is Industrial and Organisational (I/O) Psychology?
The “science of people at work”
Industrial and Organisational Psychology is a specialist area that applies psychological knowledge and skills to the workplace, with the aim of improving organisational effectiveness and the quality of work life.
I/O Psychologists have knowledge and skills in areas such as:
Selection and assessment
Job analysis
Training and development
Career development and coaching
Organisational development and change management
Attitude surveys and research on workplace issues
Performance development and review
Wellbeing, conflict, stress and work adjustment
Occupational health and safety
Program evaluation
Consumer behaviour and marketing
Advisory and advocacy regarding workplace issues
I/O Psychology Career Destinations
Human Resources/Organisational Development
E.g. Department of Treasury and Finance, RAC, WA Police Service, BHPBilliton, Rio Tinto, Coca-Cola
General Management
E.g. Department of Health, Wesfarmers
Consulting
E.g. Chandler & MacLeod, Deloitte, PriceWaterhouseCoopers, SHL
Academia
Salary expectations
Depends very much on which area you enter
In a recent Australian survey (n=231)
Median 2006 salary for current full time employees was $88,465 (range $22,000 - $400,000, mean=$106,530)
Median 2006 graduate salary for those starting work in the last 2 years was $51,000 (range $10,000-$122,000)
Degree Offerings in I/O Psychology at UWA
Master of Science (Industrial and Organisational Psychology)
Master of Psychology (Industrial and Organisational Psychology)
Combined MPsych/PhD (Industrial and Organisational Psychology)
PhD
Master of Psychology (Industrial and Organisational Psychology)
Intake of around 15 a year
Acceptance rate varies
Generally 10%-30% acceptance depending on the quality of applications
Coursework
Placements in Industry
Thesis
Coursework units
Selection and Assessment
Psychology of Training
Organisational Development & Work Design
Occupational Health, Safety and Well-being
Professional Issues in I/O Psychology
Statistics for Field Research
Research Methods in Applied Settings
2 Elective units (UWA Business School) e.g. Organisational Behaviour, Accounting, Advanced Human Resource Management, Marketing Principles
Placements
125 days (1000 hours) in total divided into 3 separate placements of 42 days each
Individualised placements depending on career stage and interests
Individual and group meetings within a peer coaching framework
Example Placement Projects
Development of internal communication strategy for a government agency
Analysis of training needs and development of training options for a diversified corporate
Selection and assessment for mining staff
Organisational culture survey development, administration, analysis and report for various organisations
Development of induction process for lateral hires for a top 4 accounting firm
Development and evaluation of induction program for overseas recruits in a state utility and for mining clients
Analysis of exit interview data for a large retail client
Example Placement Organisations
BHPBilliton
Chandler & MacLeod
ChevronTexaco
Coles
Department of Consumer & Employment Protection
Department of Environment and Conservation
Department of Racing, Gaming and Liquor
Department of Treasury and Finance
IKEA
People Solutions
Perth Transit Authority
PriceWaterhouse Coopers
Prime Psychology
RAC
Talent2
Woolworths
Wesfarmers Energy
Western Power
Research Thesis
Example topics
Employee burnout
Flexible work arrangements
Ethical codes
Work stress
Coaching
Turnover intention
Personality and intelligence
Employee engagement
Example participant organisations include
ChevronTexaco
Department of Environment and Conservation
Main Roads WA
Office of Public Sector Standards
OSA Group
Wesfarmers
Western Australian Institute of Sport
Woolworths
What are the main themes and focus areas of industrial and Organisational Psychology (I–O) and why are they important?
Describe the nature and identity of I-O psychology
Name and discuss various subfields of I-O psychology
Describe application fields in I-O psychology
Discuss the history of I-O psychology
Discuss professional training and practice in I-O psychology
Discuss future challenges in I-O psychology.
Sub-fields in psychology
Clinical psychology – aims to alleviate emotional distress caused by psychological disorders and problems of life
Counselling psychology – management of pain caused by life, facilitating improved understanding of issues, fostering use of effective coping skills
Career psychology – involves studying and facilitating occupational development across the life-span
Educational and school psychology – focuses on studying factors, behaviour, processes & problems of learning
Developmental psychology – focuses on age related changes across a person’s life span
Social psychology – studying human social interaction by understanding the influence of behaviour, beliefs and feelings amongst people.
Cognitive psychology – revolves around the theory and research regarding higher mental processes
Personality psychology – the study of the more or less consistent patterns of behaviour in people across time and situations
Physiological/Neurological psychology – Study of relationship between human behaviour and neurological and physiological systems
Psychometrics – entails the development of psychological measuring instruments
Experimental psychology – used in many psychological disciplines to establish patterns of human behaviour in controlled situations
Health psychology – utilises psychological knowledge to identify causes and symptoms of physical health and illness and related dysfunctions.
Positive psychology – emphasis on enhancement of optimum human functioning
Forensic psychology – studying context of criminal behaviour (e.g. causes) and obtaining and giving evidence in legal procedures
Community psychology – using, developing and adapting psychological knowledge and practices to improve quality of life in human communities
Cross-cultural psychology – focuses on diversity management or the consideration of differences in and between groups of people
Consulting psychology – professional involvement of psychologists with individuals, groups & organisations
Industrial and Organisational (I-O) psychology – utilises principles and assumptions of psychology to study and influence human behaviour at work.
Nature and identity of I-O psychology: I–O Psychology: A scientific discipline?
I-O Psychology is branch of psychology
Utilises psychological knowledge and in the work context to assess, utilise, develop and influence individual employees
While inextricably linked to psychology, I-O psychology has adapted and developed it own identity
It utilises, develops and teaches foundational knowledge, e.g. psychological theory/research on human behaviour in work context
Foundational knowledge is supported through work-related research to further its knowledge base
Is an applied science utilising many types of practical applications and methods to achieve best fit between employee and workplace.
Sub-fields and practice areas in I-O psychology
Organisational psychology
Concerned with work organisations as systems involving individual employees and work groups, as well as structure and dynamics of organisations
Personnel psychology
Focus on utilising individual differences in and between employees and predicting the optimal employee-organisation fit
Research methodology
Entails psychological methods of inquiry to solve research problems
Occupational psychological assessment
Entails the development and utilisation of assessment instruments to obtain measures of attributes and behaviour of employees.
Career or vocational psychology/counselling
Studies career development issues with regard to individuals, employment, unemployment, career-related issues in organisations and also non-work influencing factors
Employment relations
Deals with behavioural dynamics, communication and conflict management between individuals and groups of employees, employers and other parties
Employee and organisational well-being
Aims to facilitate positive psychological capital or resources in organisations and employees
Ergonomics
Concerned with understanding of human interaction between employees and their technical environment.
Consumer psychology
Also referred to as Economic and Market Psychology concerned with studying psychological aspects of consumer behaviour
Other applied fields
Cross-cultural Industrial Psychology
Management and leadership
Entrepreneurship and diversity management.
History of I-O psychology
Taylorism
Man is a rational-economic being
Humans are inherently
Lazy, inefficient and unreliable
Only motivated by financial incentives
Criticism of taylorism
Heavily criticised as a result of findings in Hawthorne experiments
Perceived as an exploitation of workers
Neglect of individual differences
Hawthorne experiments
Employee work performance may vary if employees follow specific procedures and standards under strict supervision.
Hawthorne experiments
What physical factors (e.g. lighting) govern worker productivity?
1924 study conducted at the Hawthorne factory of Western Electric failed to find that physical environment factors controlled productivity
Rather, any changes made increased productivity
Conclusion: Mere observation of a worker is sufficient to change their behavior (termed the Hawthorne effect)
I/O can be traced back to the work of W.D. Scott who in 1901 argued that psychological principles could be applied to advertising
F.W Taylor proposed basic principles of scientific management (1911)
H. Munsterberg created a laboratory to study personnel selection and training (1913)
Early I/O psychologists studied worker productivity in the factory
Professional training and practice issues
Contributing institutions
HPCSA
Professional Board for Psychology, etc.
Contributing peoples, associations and events
Professional training and practice
Governing bodies
Qualifications
Practice
Universities and other training institutions
Proximity with human resources management.
Future challenges in I-O psychology
How to use existing knowledge and practice
How to develop and adapt this knowledge and practice
I-O psychologist must be able to speak the language of business
Future psychologists successes in making employees and organisation more adaptive to change
The management of the increase in work stress
Creating meaningful employment amidst growing sophisticated technology, business mergers and downsizing, decreasing job opportunities
Changing nature of work requires ongoing revision of validity theory in the assessment of employees
More incorporation of technology driven interventions in organisations
I/O Psychologists have knowledge and skills in areas such as:
Selection and assessment
Job analysis
Training and development
Career development and coaching
Organisational development and change management
Attitude surveys and research on workplace issues
Performance development and review
Wellbeing, conflict, stress and work adjustment
Occupational health and safety
Program evaluation
Consumer behaviour and marketing
Advisory and advocacy regarding workplace issues
Chapter:3=Human Factors Psychology
The focus of human factors psychology is to improve the design and function of machines and the work environment
Humans and machines form an interdependent system
Machine has displays and controls (displays allow for human perception, controls allow the human to control the machine)
Displays and controls can be fine-tuned to prevent accidents and improve performance
Personnel Psychology
Finding the right person for the job:
Job analysis: What knowledge, skills, and abilities are required to do the job?
Candidate selection: Who best matches the job analysis?
Interview process
Job training: How is the person trained after hiring?
Orientation is designed to clue new hires into the new organization culture
Worker Evaluation
Performance evaluation is the formal procedure used to asses the multidimensional job performance of employees
Provides feedback on job performance
Can be used to identify training and development needs
Used to make decisions on promotions, transfers, and termination
Issues in Evaluation
Evaluations can be objective (units sold) or subjective
Often cannot identify objective criteria
Subjective evaluations suffer from rater bias
Halo effect is the tendency to rate a person as too high or too low based on one outstanding trait
Halo effect can be countered by having multiple persons contribute to the evaluation
The evaluation can be focused on rating behaviors rather than traits
Training In Organizations
Organizations spend $billions on training their employees
Training can be very valuable by
Increasing employee competence and performance
Increasing employee motivation
Increasing employee adjustment and well-being
Not always effective because training
is for the wrong thing
given to the wrong people
uses the wrong methods
Characteristics of organizational training
1. Field dominated by nonpsychologists practitioners.
2. Much training crisis motivated.
3. Much training frivolous--no particular goal.
4. Many fads & fashions.
5. Nontheoretical. Few principles are applied.
Main I/O Training Activities
Need assessment
Design
Evaluation
Delivery of training usually (but not always) done by non-psychologist trainers
Determining what training should be done
Major methods
Job analysis: KSAO's necessary for the job
Critical incidents: E.g., hospital incident reports
Performance appraisal: Can be part of a performance management system (see chapter 4)
Employee surveys
Training Program Design Principles
Goal: Transfer of training to job
Principles
Feedback necessary for learning
General principles: Cover the basic principles involved in the training.
Identical elements: Between training and job situation
Over learning--practice
Whole vs. part (depends on complexity)
Distributed or spaced vs. massed (distributed better)
Ability
Motivation
Supportive environment increases motivation
Anxiety
Use of the Types of Training
Evaluation: Did the Training Work
Criteria: Ultimate vs. actual
Training criteria
Reactions
Learning
Performance criteria
Behavior
Results
Design of evaluation studies
Posttest only
Pretest posttest
Control group
training utility
Is training worth the money?
Study of training
18 training programs, single organization
16 showed positive training effects
13 had utility, although some were marginal
(Morrow et al. 1997)
Training Dollars Spent On…
Objectives
Discuss the systems approach to training and development.
Describe the components of training-needs assessment.
Identify the principles of learning and describe how they facilitate training.
Identify the types of training methods used for managers and nonmanagers.
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of various evaluation criteria.
Describe the special training programs that are currently popular.
Training and Development and Other HRM Functions
Availability of training can aid in recruitment
Recruitment
Provide an additional source of trainees
Training may permit hiring less-qualified applicants
Selection
Effective selection may reduce training needs
Training aids in the achievement of performance
Performance Appraisal
A basis for assessing training needs and results
Training and development may lead to higher pay
Compensation Management
A basis for determining employee’s rate of pay
Training may include a role for the union
Labor Relations
Union cooperation can facilitate training efforts
Training and Development
Training
Effort initiated by an organization to foster learning among its members.
Tends to be narrowly focused and oriented toward short-term performance concerns.
Development
Effort that is oriented more toward broadening an individual’s skills for the future responsibilities.
The Systems Approach to Training and Development
Four Phases
Needs assessment
Program design
Implementation
Evaluation
Systems Model of Training
Phase 1:
Needs Assessment
Organization analysis
Task analysis
Person analysis
Phase 2:
Design
Instructional objectives
Trainee readiness
Learning principles
Phase 3:
Implementation
On-the-job methods
Off-the-job methods
Management development
Phase 4:
Evaluation
Reactions
Learning
Behavior transfer
Results
Needs Assessment for Training
Competency
assessment
Analysis ofthe sets of skills and knowledge needed for decision-oriented and knowledge-intensive jobs.
ORGANIZATIONAL ANALYSIS of environment, strategies, and resources to determine where to emphasize training
TASK ANALYSIS of the activities to be performed in order to determine the KSAs needed.
PERSON ANALYSIS of performance, knowledge, and skills in order to determine who needs training.
Phase 1: Conducting the Needs Assessment
Organization Analysis
An examination of the environment, strategies, and resources of the organization to determine where training emphasis should be placed.
Task Analysis
The process of determining what the content of a training program should be on the basis of a study of the tasks and duties involved in the job.
Person Analysis
A determination of the specific individuals who need training.
Phase 2: Designing Training Programs
Issues in training design
Instructional objectives
Trainee readiness and motivation
Principles of learning
Characteristics of successful trainersz
Instructional Objectives
Represent the desired outcomes of a training program
Performance-centered objectives
Provide a basis for choosing methods and materials and for selecting the means for assessing whether the instruction will be successful.
Trainee Readiness and Motivation
Strategies for Creating a Motivated Training Environment:
Use positive reinforcement.
Eliminate threats and punishment.
Be flexible.
Have participants set personal goals.
Design interesting instruction.
Break down physical and psychological obstacles to learning.
Feedback and Reinforcement
Behavior Modification
The technique based on the principle that behavior that is rewarded, or positively reinforced, is repeated more frequently, whereas behavior that is penalized or unrewarded will decrease in frequency.
Characteristics of Successful Instructors
Knowledge of the subject
Adaptability
Sincerity
Sense of humor
Interest
Clear instructions
Individual assistance
Enthusiasm
Training Methods for Nonmanagerial Employees
On-the-Job Training (OJT)
Apprenticeship Training
Cooperative Training, Internships, and Governmental Training
Classroom Instruction
Programmed Instruction
Audiovisual Methods
Computer-based Training and E-Learning
Simulation
On-the-job training (OJT)
Method by which employees are given hands-on experience with instructions from their supervisor or other trainer.
Apprenticeship training
System of training in which a worker entering the skilled trades is given thorough instruction and experience, both on and off the job, in the practical and theoretical aspects of the work.
Cooperative Training
Training program that combines practical on-the-job experience with formal educational classes.
Internship Programs
Programs jointly sponsored by colleges, universities, and other organizations that offer students the opportunity to gain real-life experience while allowing them to find out how they will perform in work organizations.
Vestibule Training
A special type of classroom facility is used to give instruction in the operation of equipment like that found in operating departments
The emphasis is on instruction rather than production.
Computer-assisted Instruction (CAI)
A system that delivers instructional materials directly through a computer terminal in an interactive format.
Computer-managed Instruction (CMI)
A system normally employed in conjunction with CAI that uses a computer to generate and score tests and to determine the level of training proficiency.
Advantages of Web-based Training
Learning is self-paced.
Training comes to the employee.
Training is interactive.
New employees do not have to wait for a scheduled training session.
Training can focus on specific needs as revealed by built-in tests.
Trainees can be referred to online help or written material.
It is easier to revise a computer program than to change classroom-training materials.
Record keeping is facilitated.
The computer program can be linked to video presentations.
The training can be cost-effective if used for a large number of employees.
Training Methods for Management Development
On-the-Job Experiences
Seminars and Conferences
Case Studies
Management Games
Role Playing
Behavior Modeling
On-the-Job Experiences
Coaching
Understudy Assignment
Job Rotation
Lateral Transfer
Special Projects
Action Learning
Staff Meetings
Planned Career Progressions
Case Studies
The use of case studies is most appropriate when:
Analytic, problem-solving, and critical thinking skills are most important.
The KSAs are complex and participants need time to master them.
Active participation is desired.
The process of learning (questioning, interpreting, and so on) is as important as the content.
Team problem solving and interaction are possible.
When Using Case Studies…
Be clear about learning objectives, and list possible ways to achieve the objectives.
Decide which objectives would be best served by the case method.
Identify available cases that might work, or consider writing your own.
Set up the activity—including the case material, the room, and the schedule.
Follow the principles of effective group dynamics.
When Using Case Studies…
Provide a chance for all learners to take part and try to keep the groups small.
Stop for process checks and be ready to intervene if group dynamics get out of hand.
Allow for different learning styles.
Clarify the trainer’s role.
Bridge the gap between theory and practice.
Role Playing
Successful role play requires that instructors:
Ensure that group members are comfortable with each other.
Select and prepare the role players by introducing a specific situation.
To help participants prepare, ask them to describe potential characters.
Realize that volunteers make better role players.
Successful role play requires that instructors:
Prepare the observers by giving them specific tasks (such as evaluation or feedback).
Guide the role-play enactment through its bumps (since it is not scripted).
Keep it short.
Discuss the enactment and prepare bulleted points of what was learned.
Behavior Modeling
Behavior Modeling
An approach that demonstrates desired behavior and gives trainees the chance to practice and role-play those behaviors and receive feedback.
Involves four basic components:
Learning points
Model
Practice and role play
Feedback and reinforcement
Criterion 1: Reactions
Participant Reactions.
The simplest and most common approach to training evaluation is assessing trainees.
Potential questions might include the following:
What were your learning goals for this program? Did you achieve them?
Did you like this program?
Would you recommend it to others who have similar learning goals? What suggestions do you have for improving the program?
Should the organization continue to offer it?
Criterion 2: Learning
Checking to see whether they actually learned anything.
Testing knowledge and skills before beginning a training program gives a baseline standard on trainees that can be measured again after training to determine improvement.
However, in addition to testing trainees, test employees who did not attend the training to estimate the differential effect of the training.
Criterion 3: Behavior
Transfer of Training
Effective application of principles learned to what is required on the job.
Maximizing the Transfer of Training
Feature identical elements
Focus on general principles
Establish a climate for transfer.
Give employees transfer strategies
Criterion 4: Results
Utility of Training Programs.
The benefits derived from training.
Return on Investment
Viewing training in terms of the extent to which it provides knowledge and skills that create a competitive advantage and a culture that is ready for continuous change.
Benchmarking
The process of measuring one’s own services and practices against the recognized leaders in order to identify areas for improvement.
Plan: conduct a self-audit to identify areas for benchmarking.
Do: collect data about activities.
Check: Analyze data.
Act: Establish goals, implement changes, monitor progress, and redefine benchmarks.
Special Topics in Training and Development
Orientation
A formal process of familiarizing new employees with the organization, their jobs, and their work units.
Basic Skills Training
Typical basic skills: Reading, writing, computing, speaking, listening, problem solving, managing oneself, knowing how to learn, working as part of a team, leading others.
Items for an Orientation Packet
Company history
Copy of specific job goals and descriptions
List of unique terms in the industry, company, and job
Organizational publications
Telephone numbers and locations of key personnel
Performance appraisal forms and procedures
List of on-the-job training opportunities
Safety and emergency procedures
Policy handbook
Current organization chart
Map of facility
Union contract
List of holidays
List of employee benefits
Sources of information
Insurance plans
Feelings About Work
Job satisfaction: Attitude about the job reflecting like/dislike for it and various facets.
Organizational commitment: Attachment to the job.
Emotion: Reaction to a situation that includes both physiological arousal and cognitive appraisal, e.g., anger or anxiety.
Nature of Job Satisfaction
Global approach: Overall satisfaction with work
Facet approach: Satisfaction with aspects of the job
Pay
Promotion
Supervision
Nature of work
Most people like the job overall
Facet satisfactions vary
Highest: Nature of work
Lowest: Pay and Promotion opportunities
Assessment
Self-report survey
Easy to use
Can be anonymous
Person best judge of own feelings
Standard scales exist
Job Descriptive Index (JDI)
5 facets of job satisfaction
Job In General (JIG)
Global job satisfaction
Scales exist for commitment and emotion
Antecedents of Job Satisfaction: Environmental
Job characteristics
Hackman & Oldham
Characteristics ? Psychological States ? Job satisfaction
Strong research support linking perceptions of characteristics to job satisfaction
Weak research support linking objective characteristics to job satisfaction
Pay
Salary compared to people in same job more important than different jobs
Justice
Distributive and Procedural related to global and facet satisfaction
Antecedents of Job Satisfaction: Environmental
Personality
Negative affectivity (high NAs less satisfied)
Locus of control (externals less satisfied)
Gender
Few gender differences
Age
Curvilinear—satisfaction lowest age 26 to 31
Culture and Ethnicity
Few racial differences within the U.S.
Western countries score higher than Asians
Could be due to response styles rather than true feelings
Person-Job Fit
Match between individual and the job
People differ in reactions to same situation
Characteristics of the person is a moderator
Moderator: Variable that affects relationship between two other variables
Growth need strength (GNS)
People high on GNS are more satisfied with high scope jobs
People low on GNS are not more satisfied with high scope jobs
Effects of Job Satisfaction
Job Performance
Small correlation
More evidence that performance causes satisfaction than reverse
Turnover
Dissatisfied people more likely to quit
Moderated by labor market—people quit when they find another job
Absence
Very small correlation—other factors more important
Health and Well-Being
Job satisfaction relates to health variables such as anxiety and depression
Life Satisfaction
Job satisfaction important component of life satisfaction
Spillover
Organizational Commitment
One commitment, three components
Mowday, Steers, Porter
Acceptance of organization goals
Intention to stay on the job
Willingness to work hard
Three commitments
Meyer and Allen
Affective: Like the job
Continuance: Need the job
Normative: Feel obligated to stay on the job
Commitment and Other Variables
Similar correlations as job satisfaction
High commitment associated with
High job scope
High job satisfaction
Low job stressors
Job Scope
Emotions and Work
Emotion state: How you feel now
Emotion mood: How you have been feeling lately
Positive emotions: Feeling good
Greater creativity
Higher job satisfaction
More contextual performance
Negative emotions: Feeling bad
Lower job satisfaction
Higher absence
More turnover
Emotional Labor
Requirement at work to express or inhibit emotional display
Smiling at customers
Not showing anger toward clients
Some studies showed that acting happy can lead to job satisfaction
Emotional dissonance: Expressing emotion you don’t feel
Leads to dissatisfaction and stress
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